Cross Cultural Awareness And Preparation Of Expatriates Management Essay

Cross Cultural Awareness And Preparation Of Expatriates Management Essay The integration of world markets has resulted in an outstanding growth of multinational businesses and these corporations have emerged as an important form of foreign investment. As the organizations grow by virtue of investing in foreign countries, the need to manage, coordinate, control and integrate the foreign operations of their subsidiaries with those of the parent company increases to a large extent. To achieve the objectives of the company, parent companies in the home country usually send expatriate employees to host countries as corporate representatives and ambassadors. Firstly, the paper will focus on the importance cross-cultural awareness in preparing successful expatriates for overseas activities. Through examining the literature (comparison of Hofstede and Trompenaars cultural dimensions) this paper will examine how cultural awareness is important in developing successful expatriates. Moreover, the differences in Malaysian and American culture that can create hindranc e in a successful expatriate venture will be analyzed. Finally, it will argue the importance of training and orientation in terms of preparing expatriates for foreign assignments. Literature Review There have been number of researches done on the relationship between cultural distance and adjustment of expatriate, with some arguing that sending expatriates to a same culture is almost similar to sending them to different culture. The studies conducted by those scholars found that there is no or positive relationship between cultural distance and expatriate adjustment. The results of a report by Jan Selmer suggests that although there is a significant between-group difference in cultural distance, that the American expatriates perceive Canada as more culturally similar to America than Germany, no significant inter-group differences are detected for general adjustment, interaction adjustment, work adjustment and psychological adjustment (Selmer, 2007). It could be argued that American expatriates sent to Canada do not experience any cultural differences because those differences are not expected. It has been found from studies that respondents from similar cultures such as U.S. when assigned as expatriates are not keen to report adjustment problems as compare to expatriates which are assigned to more dissimilar cultures, such as China (Forster, 1997). The result given by Forster reflected that the degree of cultural strangeness does not seem to have any correlation with the result of the foreign assignment. Similarly, it has been reported that the Japanese multinational corporations have experienced that their expatriates appear to adjust about the same in different countries, regardless of their degree of cultural similarity to Japan (Peterson, 1996). In contrast to the above findings, there are many researches on expatriate adjustment that lead to the conclusion that cultures which are more dissimilar to the expatriate culture present bigger challenges and result in greater adjustment difficulties (Ward Kennedy, 1992). It has been found that found that U. S. expatriates are more likely to experience greater cultural barriers in Southeast Asia (India and Pakistan), the Middle-East, North Africa, East Africa and Liberia in the areas of job satisfaction, stress and anxiety, and quality of life standards such as housing, food, and health care (Torbià ¶rn, 1982). Furthermore, a report by Tung suggests that American expatriates express higher levels of dissatisfaction with their expatriation experiences in Africa, the Middle East and Southeast Asia than in other world regions since the culture in those areas are most dissimilar (Tung, 1982). Black and Stephens measures this correlation between the cultural distance and expatriate adj ustment using self-report from 220 business expatriates, whose results showed negative correlations (Black Stephens, 1989). Hofstede Cultural Dimensions The study conducted on IBM employees in 53 countries by Hofstede is generally referred as Hofstede Cultural Dimensions. By using standard statistical analysis of large data sets, he was able to define patterns of similarities and differences among the respondents. The theory formulated by using the gathered data states that world cultures differ along consistent fundamental dimensions. Power-distance It refers to the degree to which the members of the organizations and institutions which are less powerful accepting and expecting that power is distributed unequally (Hofstede, 1991). It represents inequality (more versus less) which is defined from below not from above. Hofstede suggests that societys level of inequality is fully endorsed by the followers as much as by the leaders. Collectivism vs. individualism This dimension refers to the degree to which individuals are integrated into groups (Hofstede, 1991). On one side we see individualist approach in societies where the relationships between individuals are loose, where everyone is expected to look after him/herself and his/her immediate family. But on the other side which is referred as collectivism, there are societies in which people from birth onwards are integrated into strong, cohesive in-groups, often extended families (with uncles, aunts and grandparents) which continue protecting them in exchange for unquestioning loyalty (Hofstede, 1991). Femininity vs. Masculinity The third dimension describe by Hofstede is masculinity (MAS) versus its opposite, femininity. This refers to the distribution of roles between the genders in a society and it is also a fundamental issue for any society to which a range of solutions are found (Hofstede, 1991). The two main results that were found out by Hofstede on his study on IBM were, first, womens values differ less among societies than mens values; second, mens values from one country to another contain a dimension from very assertive and competitive and maximally different from womens values on the one side, to modest and caring and similar to womens values on the other. Uncertainty avoidance The main purpose of uncertainty avoidance index is that it deals with a societys tolerance for uncertainty and ambiguity; ultimately referring to the mans search for Truth (Hofstede, 1991). It refers to the extent to which the members of the society are programmed to feel uncomfortable or comfortable in unstructured situations. The situations which are novel, surprising and unknown, different from usual are referred as uncertain situations (Hofstede, 1991). Long- vs. short-term orientation This is the fifth dimension that was added after the initial four dimensions were developed by Hofstede. It was developed by a study conducted among students in 23 countries around the world, using a questionnaire designed by Chinese scholars (Bond, 2002). The results of this study revealed that the values associated with Long Term Orientation are thrift and perseverance and the values associated with Short Term Orientation are respect for tradition, fulfilling social obligations, and protecting ones face (Hofstede, 1991). Applause and Criticism of Hofstede Theory There are many researchers that are of the opinion that a survey is not an appropriate instrument for accurately determining and measuring cultural disparity. It is mostly apparent when the variable being measured is a value which culturally sensitive and subjective (Schwartz 1999). Perhaps this is the most popular criticism that was made on Hofstedes study and it says that Hofstede assumes that the domestic population is a homogenous whole. It also states that Hofstede tends to ignore the importance of community, and the variations of the community influences (Dorfman and Howell 1988). McSweeney argues that nations are not the proper units of analysis as cultures are not necessarily bounded by bordersm (McSweeney, 2000). It is also proved from recent research that culture is in fact fragmented across groups. There is also a criticism that the study revolves around one company cannot possibly provide information on the entire cultural system of a country (Graves 1986). It is also believed by some researchers have claimed that the study is too old to be of any modern value, particularly with todays rapidly changing global environments, internationalization and convergence. It has been argued that during the time of Hofstedes study there was very little work on culture. There was demand for such kind of work and therefore, Hofstedes work met demand for guidance. Trompenaars Cultural Dimensions Fons Trompenaars, a Dutch culturalist who is renowned for his work on international culture and Charles Hampden-Turner, a dilemma enthusiast classified seven dimensions of cultures. Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner (1997) categorized cultures as a mix of behavioral and value patterns. The research emphasize on the cultural dimensions of business executives. As a result of their research, seven value dimensions were established Universalism vs. Particularism The dimension of universalism is about finding broad and general rules. If any issue arises and there is no rule that fits, it finds the best rule. On the other hand, Particularism is about finding exceptions. The judgment of cases on its own merits rather than forcing an existing rule in case where no rules fit. Analyzing vs. Integrating The decomposition to find the detail is analyzing. It assumes that people who look at the big picture as being out of touch with reality. Integrating refers to bringing the things together to build the big picture. Individualism vs. Collectivism Individualism is about the rights of the individual. It seeks to let each person grow or fail on their own, and sees group-focus as denuding the individual of their inalienable rights. Collectivism is about the rights of the group or society. It seeks to put the family, group, company and country before the individual. It sees individualism as selfish and short-sighted (Trompenaars and Turner, 2000). Inner-directed vs. Outer-directed The approach that what we think in our head is the most powerful tool and that considered ideas and intuitive approaches are the best way. On the other hand, outer-directed is seeking data in the outer world. It assumes that we will live in a world and should form our decisions on information available to us (Trompenaars and Turner, 2000). Time as sequence vs. Time as synchronization The approach towards time as sequence and sees events as separate items in time, sequence one after another. It finds order in a serried array of actions that happen one after the other. Whereas, time as synchronization approaches the events in parallel and synchronized together (Trompenaars and Turner, 2000). Achieved status vs. Ascribed status The gain of status through performance is achieved status. In this it is assumed that individuals and organizations earn and lose their status every day, and that other approaches are recipes for failure. Gaining status through means of seniority is referred as ascribed status (Trompenaars and Turner, 2000). Equality vs. Hierarchy The approach that all people have equal status and have equal rights, irrespective of birth or other gift is referred as equality. Whereas, hierarchy is about people being superior to others when few are in charge and others obey through the scalar chain of command (Trompenaars and Turner, 2000). Applause and Criticism of Trompenaars and Turner Theory The work done by Trompenaars and Turner is regarded as one of the best in its field but at the same time there has been some criticism of Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner. One of their critics is Hofstede, who claims that the theory of Trompenaars is not supported by his database. Hofstede (1996) argues that a result of correlation and factor analysis at the country level, there are only two dimensions that could be identified and both of them are correlated with his Individualism dimension. This criticism by Hofstede was accepted by Turner Trompenaars (1997) and two contrasting lists of assumptions attributed to Hofstedes work and their own were presented by them. It is also been debated that Trompenaars and Turner didnt develop the dimensions from statistical data, but created their own collection instrument for the data they considered relevant Data derived from questionnaires is based on a limited number of questions by which underlying values were explained. Another notable criti cism is that the data is only selectively documented i.e. it is not to be considered scientific work. Also, the data (not all) is not freely available, it is owned by his company. The difference in the two works (Hofstedes and Trompenaars tuner) is that Hofstedes approach appears to be about the analysis of the variables of national culture, whereas Trompenaars and Turner are more involved in the process of cultural creation. It is also widely believed that there were very valuable dimensions that were added by Trompenaars and Turner. Hofstede and Trompenaars Turner and Preparation of Expatriate Challenges faced by Expatriates (Malaysian and American Culture) The globalization of world has made many international organizations to expand their business globally. Barto and Martin (1998) refer to globalization process a worldwide integration strategy where the purpose involves at developing relatively standardized products with global appeals, as well as rationalizing operations throughout the world. In order to achieve the objectives, organizations are required to send their designate representatives for overseas assignments in order to maintain the standards of their products or services abroad. A study was conducted in Malaysia to examine the issues faced by American expatriates working in Malaysia (Tahir Ismail, 2007). Attitudes of Malaysians Difficulties faced in understanding the indirect and non-confrontational behavior of Malaysians Malaysians misconception towards Mat Salleh Custom and Religion Problems in understanding the dress code of the locals Being cautious over religious issues Addressing Social Status: Difficulty in addressing names of Malaysians according to social status Gender Issues in Expatriation: Preconceived ideas about western women expatriates Malaysian Working Habit Difficulty in complying with the working pace High level of bureaucracy hinders job implementation Cross-cultural Training: Unavailability of a Structured Cross-Cultural Training program Importance of Training and Orientation The extent to which expatriates fail to achieve the expected outcomes of a foreign assignment is due to different reasons such as language problems, lack of effective knowledge transfer between the home and the host country (Tung, 1987), lack of personality skills for the expatriate to understand the cross-cultural interactions, shortage of technical abilities for the work to be done, lack of motivation or the expatriate may have difficulties to understand and adapt to either the physical or the cultural differences in the environment (Littrell et al., 2006). Companies use a variety of methods to teach expatriates cross-cultural skills, aimed at facilitating interactions with a foreign culture. Didactic Training This type of raining is most often provided in informal briefings, which can be given in a classical lecture form or with less structured methods such as casual conversations with experts. It is the most common and more than two thirds of all multinational corporations offer didactic training in the form of informal briefings to their expatriates before deployment abroad (Brewster, 1995). This kind of training provides factual information regarding working and living conditions as well as cultural aspects of the host country. Experiential Training This training is conveyed using a number of methods including, not only, practical exercises, workshops and simulations, but also more genuine concepts such as look-see visits to the host country (Caligiuri et al., 2001). The arrangement of look-see trips can provide a first real experience of the country for the expatriate and sometimes his or her family giving them opportunity to meet people in the new country and get a view of the new environment and the workplace. The planning of these trips should be properly done in order to be effective they need to be well planned, which can make them costly. Brewster (1995) argues that these are designed to give the expatriate a positive view; they may not show the true picture of the host country (Brewster, 1995). Language Training Teaching expatriates the language and/or the business language of the host country is part of the language training. Tung (1981) suggests that while fluency can take months or even years to attain there are still benefits of using this training method. This technique is often used and is an effective way of preparing an expatriate to speed up the adjustment process. Although fluency in the native language is not achieved, the ability to enter into informal discussions, use common courtesies and show cultural empathy can help to facilitate adaptation to the host culture. Cultural Awareness Training The ultimate objective of cultural awareness training is to give the expatriate insight about the culture and cultural differences, by teaching awareness about the home culture. There are different training activities that are included such as self-awareness building and value ranking charts, but the goals can also be reached with more culture-general approaches, such as simulation games and perceptual exercises (Grove Torbià ¶rn, 1985). Methods such as role-plays and self-assessments can be a good way of building self awareness, which translates into acceptance of oneself and an ability to adapt to the host culture. Conclusions In reviewing various cultural theories presented by different authors, it is obvious that culture plays a vital role in doing business globally. Companies that look to expand their operations globally must understand the host culture in depth and cross-cultural dimensions developed by Hofstede and Trompenaars Turner are of great help in this field. Also, organizations wishing to go global by investing in foreign countries, there is always a growing need to manage, coordinate, control and integrate the foreign operations and therefore, the importance of expatriates cannot be ignored. However, it is also found out that preparing expatriates is a great challenge and organizations invest lot of resources to prepare and train them for foreign assignments. Finally, the type of training and orientation provided to the expatriates is plays a significant importance in the successful fulfillment of overseas assignment.

Macbeth theme of kingship Essay

What is Kingship? During the Shakespearean time, being a king means that you are god-appointed to rule on Earth. It was a kings’s responsibility to rule wisely and well and his subjects’ duty to serve him loyally. We see how King Edward is described as ‘good’,’pious’,holy’ and ‘full of grace’ who has the ability to miraculously cure his subjects. While Macbeth’s tyrannical rule is contrasted to the rightful reign of good and lawful kings, bringing death and disease to his country.†i think our country sinks beneath the yoke; it weeps, it bleeds, and each day a gash is added to her wounds.† In the play Macbeth, when Duncan made his first appearance he immediately apprehends the traitors and rewards the good. â€Å"No more that Thane of Cawdor shall deceive Our bossom interest. Go pronounce his present death and with his formal title greet macbeth. He also portrays another trait of being a king, one who is humble,†there’s no art to find a mind’s construction in the face.† He expressed humility when he misjudged the previous thane of Cawdor. When Duncan rewards Macbeth with the title of Thane of Cawdor, he brought about his own downfall as a king, fulfilling the Witches prophecies on Macbeth â€Å"Hail to thee, thane of Glamis†¦ Hail to thee, Thane of Cawdor†¦ Hail to thee, that shalt be king thereafter.† When Macbeth commits regicide on the good Duncan, his inner guilt sets in and he then says,†wake Duncan with thy knocking, i would thou couldst†. After Duncan’s murder, Macbeth takes over the reign of Scotland as king. This unlawful order causes turmoil within Scotland, turning healthy Scotland to a sick and wounded Scotland under an intolerable burden.†Alas poor country, almost afraid to know itself, it cannot be called our mother, but our grave.† This shows how terrible Macbeth’s reign as a king as compared to Duncan. Macbeth does many unscrupulous deeds to keep his throne. He plots the murder of Banquo and Fleance due to Banquo suspecting Macbeth of murdering Duncan as he knew the witches prophecies. Macbeth also massacre Macduff’s family as he wants to give himself self-affirmation that he would be safe for the time being as Macbeth had been told by the witches to â€Å"beware Macduff† Finally, when Malcolm and Macduff unites to rebel against this Tyrannical Macbeth, Malcolm, the rightful heir of the throne, claims back the throne. Malcolm is seen to be the Medicine of sick scotland and macduff seen to be Scoland’s avenger. Macduff, carrying Macbeth’s head on a pole, hails Malcolm as king of Scotland and says, â€Å"Behold, where stands / The usurper’s cursed head: the  time is free† . The â€Å"time is free† because they are all now free of Macbeth’s reign of terror over Scotland. Macduff then leads the men in a shout of victory and loyalty. He says, â€Å"I see thee compass’d with thy kingdom’s pearl, / That speak my salutation in their minds; / Whose voices I desire aloud with mine: / Hail, King of Scotland!† . â€Å"Compassed† means â€Å"encircled† and Malcolm’s â€Å"kingdom’s pearl† is Malcolm’s circle of loyal thanes, who encircle him like a string of pearls encircles a crown. Macduff knows that these thanes already think of Malcolm as their king, and now he asks them to join him in shouting out loud, â€Å"Hail, King of Scotland!† And so they do, honoring Malcolm, above whose head looms th e severed head of Macbeth.

Same Sex Marriage Should Be Allowed - 2932 Words

Gay Marriage Abstract This paper discusses homosexuality in our society, particularly in granting homosexual couples a right to marry. The pros and the cons throw out a ton of arguments supporting their position. This issue, whether or not the same-sex marriage should be allowed, is extremely controversial and the debates never end. In this paper, I take the pro side by providing strong both qualitative and quantitative data, how the homosexual marriage can benefit society, how far they have fought for their rights, etc. Marriage is commonly construed as a legal relationship between a man and a woman or between a husband and a wife to build a new family. According to Webster’s New Collegiate Dictionary, a family is â€Å"the basic unit in society having as its nucleus two or more adults living together and cooperating in the care and rearing of their own or adopted children.† In spite of this neutral definition of family, it is called neutral because the dictionary never mentions the gender of the adults; many people in our society do not picture lesbian or gay couple when they think about a family. In America, gay or lesbian couples cannot just legally marry as normal couples do in any state, except in Massachusetts; where same-sex marriage is allowed. 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Gender Roles in Literature - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 4 Words: 1167 Downloads: 5 Date added: 2019/04/26 Category Sociology Essay Level High school Topics: Gender Roles Essay Did you like this example? Throughout the history of literature, gender has played a significant role in how the characters were portrayed. The female gender is commonly depicted as being the weaker character while the male gender stronger. The male gender is often considered to be more rational thinking and women being more irrational. Ibsen uses these stereotypical gender traits throughout his play A Dolls House, but then he later reverses the stereotypes towards the end of the play to display that inner strength and weaknesses are characteristics of being human and are not based on being male or female. Ibsens play A Dolls House, is written to focus on the gender roles most commonly displayed during the Victorian society. During the Victorian period males were always the ones that went to work, handle all the business matters and where considered to be the head of the household leaving their wives to care of the household chores and tend the children. During this time only unmarried women were allowed to hold jobs. Ibsens characters Helmer and Nora were a perfect example of how a married couple lived during the Victorian era. Torvald was a bank manager and managed all the money and he often commanded Nora on what to do and when to do it. Nora, being the traditional wife during this time was only allowed to stay at home and tend to the household duties and raise their children. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Gender Roles in Literature" essay for you Create order Torvald asserted his dominance over Nora early in the play in several different ways. He often refers to Nora as a pet by calling her animals such as lark and squirrel. Torvald says, Come, come; my little skylark must not droop her wings. What is this! Is my little squirrel out of temper? (Taking out his purse.) Nora, what do you think I have got here? (Gardner 2017). Torvald show his control over Nora when he takes her by the ear, this act represents his physical, emotional and financial control over her, in return Nora quietly accepts the nicknames hes given her and that displayed her feminine weakness. Noras character encountered several problems throughout Ibsens play, just because she was a female during the Victorian period. When Torvald became ill, the doctor informed them that for him to get better, it would be best for them to move south, however, for them to make the move they would have to scrounge up the funds of two-hundred and fifty pounds. Because they did not have the money to make the trip, they would either have to take out a loan from the bank or hope that Torvald overcame his sickness. During the Victorian period then men were in charge of the household finances and because of this Torvald felt that if they were to take out a loan from the bank that his reputation would be defaced. Nora knew that they were in desperate need of the money and chose to take matters into her own hands and take out a loan without Torvalds knowledge and forged her fathers signature on the paperwork. Because Nora is unable to apply for the loan herself this causes her to be the weaker per son in her marriage to Torvald. By not being able to sign for a loan during this time often lead women to believe that they inadequate because they were female. During this time frame society deemed that women were mentally and emotionally unstable and it often resulted in impulsive behavior. Victorian society values strong male traits such as those of strength, stability, and logic. Torvalds character in A Dolls House is an example of a secure, stable and rational male. He is in charge of his home, family and over all of the family finances. His masculinity is displayed in his marriage when he constantly refers to his wife, Nora by using pet names, which in returns weakens her character image. This type of behavior from Torvald makes its clear that he will never incorporate Noras or her opinion with any situation that is of great importance, such as the finances and he doesnt allow her to hold any responsibility other than being a housewife and his pet. This behavior between a husband and a wife was typical during this period. Torvald is the money maker, he is employed at a rather large bank and makes a decent salary. He tells his wife Its so gratifying to know that ones gotten a safe, secure job, and with a comfortable salary. Hes apparently satisfied with his self-imag e and his reputation, how he appears to everyone else is important to him thats why he didnt want to take out the loan. Hes also so caught up in his reputation that he disapproved of Krogstad working at the bank because his character is a widower with small children and Torvald thinks he is incapable of raising children to own his own. Once the Ibsen established Torvald and Noras stereotypical gender personality traits in the play, he decides to reverse them. He displays that strength, weakness, stability, impulsivity, and logic are all human traits not necessarily traits associated with gender roles. Ibsen shows that these traits are held and displayed equally by both genders and that neither gender has more of one quality than the other. Nora finally realizes that her gender is her downfall and is the reason she is unable to have the fulfilling life she desires. Noras claim that she is first and foremost a human being (Moi, T. 2006, p.274) She attempts to discuss her feelings about their marriage with Torvald You dont understand me. And Ive never understood you either-until tonight.Weve been married now eight years. Doesnt it occur to you that this is the first time, we two, you and I, man and wife, have ever talked seriously together? (Isben) Nora, unlike her stereotypical emotionally unstable female character remains calm when she tells him Im a human being, no less than you-or anyway, I ought to try to come one (Isben) Her comments to her husband demonstrations that she considers her duties as his wife and mother to their children to be her human responsibilities, not responsibilities that should be defined to her just because she is a woman. In A Dolls House, Ibsen keeps the setting close to the real-life situations that married couples encountered during the Victorian period. The play depicts the struggle of women encountered to obtain their independence aside from their husbands. Ibsens teaches the audiences that individuals must be able to view themselves as human beings and be capable of taking care of themselves despite what society deems proper for them at the time. A Dolls House is Ibsens effort for a social revolution not only for women but also for every human. He displays that masculinity is lost as the female gender desires to become more independent. However, the power struggle between the two genders will continue he notes in the play that it is perfectly acceptable for men to share their power with women.